Romantic Period Essays - Hector Berlioz, Program Music,

Romantic Period A New Step in Music Since the beginning of organized music in the Middle Ages, like all the other fields of creativity and study, such as art, philosophy, and architecture, music has made leaps and bounds in the flow of progression. The Romantic period was a time when music began to take on a different meaning. The music began to become more subjective as opposed to objective music of the Classical period. The artist or composer became much more important as an individual. An example of one of these progressions occurring mainly during the Romantic period was when composers and audiences alike started turning towards program music. Program music is "the term for a nonvocal music that is associated with a poem, a story, or some other literary source; the literary text itself is the program. This new style of music created waves of joy and of controversy that still exist today. This form of music was first derived to fulfill a greater need to cease creating and continuing boundaries in the separate fields of art. Before this period music and paintings or in this case music and literature were not meant to be intertwined. The people did not see a need for it since each field was considered a separate entity of itself. Bent 2 During the romantic period, the general feeling began to surface that music could be made even more expressive by channeling it through literature; especially poetry. I believe a lot of this had to do with the new, relaxed frame of thought for the time period, and the genius of William Shakespeare's writing capabilities. The issue surrounding program music is that critics ridicule the idea that the music can actually illustrate a program. They ask the question that if the audience did not know it was program music, then could they identify it as so, once heard. Some say that it is entirely possible, and even would be hard not to while others claim that there could quite possibly be no clues to the fashion of program music. Another argument made by the critics of program music is music should be able to stand on its own, with meaning, feeling, and a general sense or purpose. With program music, they felt that the music itself could not stand alone. However, the people of the Romantic period did not care. They wanted program music to increase expressive capabilities, and to be entertained in a new fashion. Many of the composers of this time, and since then have flourished through the use of program music. Perhaps some of the most renowned pieces of music in existence today are forms of program music. Hector Berlioz (1803 ? 1869) was a truly gifted composer who was most definitely inspired by literature; mainly Shakespeare. His composition Lelio is a correspondence to the renowned play Hamlet. Probably his best known piece though, Symphonie Fantastique was written about a woman that Berlioz was madly infatuated with. The Irish Shakespearean actress, Harriet Smithson, was the Bent 3 object of his affections, and did actually become his wife for a short time years after this composition. The remarkable part about the symphony is that Berlioz actually had programs made up and distributed to the audience for the performance. "A young musician of unhealthy sensibility and passionate imagination poisons himself with opium in a fit lovesick despair. Too weak to kill him, the dose of drug plunges him into a heavy sleep attended by the strangest visions, during which his sensations, emotions, and memories are transformed in his diseased mind into musical thoughts and images." Berlioz's symphony was received well and he ended up getting his beloved, even though they ended up miserable together. Another famous work in which this new form of music was displayed is Mozart's Don Giovanni. Mozart used a sort of foreshadowing in his music to help the audience along with the story line. In the second to last scene, Don Giovanni is carried off to Hell. Before the curtain opens, the orchestra begins incorporation a somber tone to signify this occurrence. He felt that this foreshadowing made the mood and the music more interesting. This transition during the Romantic period, beginning to compose program music, created a lot of changes in how composers wrote music, and how the audience received the music. Although there were, and still are some questions and uncertainties in some people's minds as to the validity of the music, program music was an inspirational change welcomed by most in the Romantic era. Bibliography Kerman, Joseph. Listen.

Vietnam essays

Vietnam essays During the Cold War, the United States of America was determined to act as the superior nation in the world. They believed that every country was inferior to them in regards to military power, economic stability and moral beliefs. After the assassination of former President John F. Kennedy, the Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson took over in Washington. He was pressured to follow through on the late President's programs and policies on Vietnam which involved the demonstration of America's strength and responsibility. It is believed that American intervention in Vietnam was caused by structural weakness in the National Security Council and not enough attention to long- range policy planning. In addition, Johnson's inexperience and naivety regarding foreign policy and the positive belief of creating a perfect world. A main cause of American involvement was the weakness of the mechanism for determining the framework of foreign policy. The establishment of the National Security Council came about in 1947. It was to bridge the gulf between considerations of foreign policy and considerations of the military force which was to conduct external relations.1 Apparently, the U.S.A. had had no central authority that linked the organizations of the Military Services and the State Department. As a result, the government decided that in order to be successful in international affairs the two groups had to basically work together. The NSC ensured detailed coordination of all major factors of U.S. foreign policy decisions.2 It was odd that both President Truman and Eisenhower had success with this organization and when Kennedy came to office he decided to change it. He preferred to rely on small groups to be responsible for policy formation and execution therefore, he was more "comfortable...with a broad know ledge of foreign affairs and a strong distaste for being hemmed in by too much organization".3 This informal system carried serious dangers of in...

Visual art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Visual art - Essay Example In this regard, it is evident that most of the bush meat that the hunters normally look for come from animals within the valley at the far end, as the hunters are seen going down the valley in their hunting mission. On the upper part of the village are a few trees and buildings to sustain life, which is contrary to what happens down the valley that depicts few signs of life. Since the piece of work is an example of composition design, it is best described using certain basic principles that mainly take into account the physical aspects of the image. The artist in this case has used these principles of visuals arts to organize the various elements of art in the image. This enables that the artist came up with an aesthetic piece that described the natural environment and certain cultures using harmony, movement, unity, balance, variety, rhythm, contrast, pattern, emphasis, and proportion. To this effect, these principles of art describe the piece by the artist in an explicit, accurate, and visual manner that giving relevance and significance to the piece of art. From the onset, there is an element of movement in the image as depicted by the group of people and their animals. In the piece of art, the group of hunters conspicuously faces the same direction that is downhill together with their dogs. They have their legs apart with one foot forward, an aspect that is repeated in their dogs. Indeed, all these aspects depict that the people in this case are involved in a range of motion making the viewer of the image to look at the direction of their motion, which is down the valley. The artist carefully uses the hunters’ scenario to direct the viewer’s eyes down the snowy valley that seems to have a host of activities by several people. When it comes to proportion, the artist has demonstrated significance difference between the sizes and quantity of the elements in the image in that there is a clear scale between the foreground and middle ground in terms of topography. In this regard, the three hunters on top of the valley appear more enlarged than those people situated down the valley, although the number is not that big. Thus, every aspect of the drawing especially on the left foreground and left middle ground places an emphasis on the culture and living environment. Although the presence of snow in all parts of the drawing creates a sense of uniformity, it is apparent that life is more pronounced on the upper part of the valley as evidenced by people, trees, and buildings that are crucial for human survival. The motion downhill also depicts that people mainly reside on top of the hill together with their domestic animals as enhanced by various proportionalities. The artist also makes appropriate use of variety in the drawing by including various aspects such as humans, animals, trees, buildings, topography, and snow. These elements when used together in the same drawing, as are the case creates a sense of harmony. Additionally, the close collaboration of the hunters carrying spears and heading towards the same direction as their dogs creates the impression of uniformity and harmony. The trees are arranged in the same direction down the valley to create a sense of balance in addition to uniformity due to their almost equal heights. Lastly but more importantly, the artist makes accurate use of patterns and rhythm in the drawing in the sense that the hole drawing is in color while depicting the fact that the art is a snowy region that covers almost entirely down the

Application for admission middle school Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Application for admission middle school - Essay Example One is the Doing the Right Thing Award given after I fed a quadriplegic student every day during lunch hour for one year. The second is Student of the Month awarded to me by teachers for assisting fellow students to excel in their homework. The third is Team Spirit Award scooped for helping fellow students to perform to their full potential through my encouragement. In addition to the above, I am a volunteer at the Humane Society and Food Panty and a member of my school’s Volunteering Committee. I am also an elected member of the Students Council and a teachers-elected Safety Patrol for 2 years. My teacher also has selected me to be helping young students in their performance during and after school. I believe that in Middle School I will offer these and more so as to improve the lives of others while excelling in my studies. Works cited Richards, Keith and Fox, James. Life. Little, Brown and Company, 2010.

Understanding and Using Inclusive Essay Example for Free

Understanding and Using Inclusive Essay 1.1. Inclusive learning is about recognising that all your students have the right to be treated equally and fairly, have the same access to all products, services and have the opportunity to be involved and included. As a teacher you need to be aware that all students are not the same as they all do not learn in the same way, the ways in which a teacher can overcome this is using the Teaching and Learning Cycle, using visual, auditory and kinaesthetic materials (VAK) and agreeing on individual learning plans (ILPs). Other features could include self reflective exercises, quizzes and providing opportunities for students to reflect on their own experiences and consider how these experiences influence the way they learn. 1.2. There are a number of strengths and limitations of learning approaches when teaching. For example, a strength can include an activity and/or a demonstration in pairs or groups, a questionnaire and a power point presentation. The limitations could be when working in group sessions, a shy person can hide in a group, more confident people can take over and there could be a possible clash of personalities. Using all learning styles need to kept to a minimum as previously stated not all students learn the same, some students may ‘switch off’ at certain times and become less interested in the subject, this will hopefully ensure that all students can relate and keep concentration in the subject that is being taught. 1.3. Providing students with the functional skills within the chosen subject will be in ways which the students will be reading, speaking and listening as the demonstration I will be giving will be from power point but will also include listening to instructions and watching myself with a volunteer. The students will have only have a certain length of materials to use so they will need to calculate these when carrying out the activity themselves. To incorporate ICT, students will need to use their own mobile phones to download an app and at the end of the lesson. Once the students have completed the lesson, they can use all of the skills out of the classroom and into their everyday life. 2.1. Creating an inclusive learning environment benefits all students to enable effective learning to take place. The environment in which you are teaching the subject can sometimes be restricted but teaching can take place anywhere not necessarily just in a classroom, for example, colleges, learning centres, the workplace, prisons are to name just a few. When teaching you would need to consider the venue, rooms and resources but also your attitude and support as this can also have an impact on the students in which they will learn. 2.2. It is important to select a number of teaching and learning approaches as individuals can face a number of barriers causing them difficulty to learn. Maslows (1987) Hierarchy of Needs shows that if all five aspects of this theory are met, which are, self actualisation, self esteem recognition, safety/security and physiological it creates a healthy environment for learners to progress and achieve their goal. 2.3. Motivation is what causes us to act, it is either intrinsic (from within) which means to learn for your own fulfilment or extrinsic (from without) which means they may be an external factor motivating the learner. To help motivate learners you can set targets, be professional, create interesting and relevant tasks or activities, engage students and give them the opportunity to learn. 2.4. Ground rules can be set by having a group discussion. To have the ground rules mutually set between the teacher and the students it makes it more likely for these to be followed and adhered to. As a teacher certain ground rules need to apply to allow all students to be treated equally and fairly, for example, punctuality, respect for others, mobile phones off or on silent, no abusive language, no racism and no discussing politics. 3.1. See Micro Teach session plan 3.2. Using my selection of teaching methods covers the three learning styles  which people have (VAK). The power point presentation and demonstration covers the visual and auditory learning styles whereas the demonstration and group activity/task covers the kinaesthetic learning style. Handouts will also be given which are reflective tools; this will help the students to remember important information that is being delivered. 4.1. The teaching approaches that I am using helps the students engage by connecting the subject to real life, it will teach self monitoring skills and information will be presented in multiple formats. As all three learning styles are being covered this will also help keep the students motivated and interested. 4.2. Communication is a key point in all aspects in life, communication with students is essential for them to ascertain progress and identify where improvements could be made. For communication to be effective teachers need to speak slowly and clearly and by only using words in which the students should be able to understand, however communication is a two way process, the teacher could ask questions to ensure the students have understood. 4.3. There are a number of ways to give constructive feedback to your students, when giving feedback to students, teachers need to be positive, open and honest, be clear and specific, be balanced, be motivating and also invite self assessment. Gray and Smith (2000) pointed out that students want consistent, genuine feedback because they do not want to ‘carry on doing it wrong’. References http://www.flinders.edu.au/teaching/quality/teaching-methods/inclusive-teaching/strategies-for-inclusive-teaching.cfm http://www.functionalskills.com/Functional-Skills/Functional-Skills-faqs.php http://www.anngravells.co.uk/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderfiles/SampleD9001.pdf http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/39528_Pages_from_Green_ch1.pdf http://livingsta.hubpages.com/hub/Establish-ground-rules-with-your-learners-PTLLS http://livingsta.hubpages.com/hub/Explain-and-justify-the-reasons-behind-your

Statement of Purpose Engineering Example

Statement of Purpose Engineering Example Statement of Purpose I believe that keeping an explorative attitude and inquisitive mind is key to a constant learning process. In wish to attain quintessential level of education I aspire to pursue my graduate studies at your esteem university. This would grant me access to highly qualified and reputed professors and practical knowledge. I come from a family of business background and it has always been my desire to join it. We are in business of manufacturing plastic printing and converting machineries, a bachelors degree in engineering has provided me knowledge of technology and skills for innovation, but one needs business knowledge to expand it and commercialise the product. A degree in ______(course) would extend my knowledge to accentuate my business skills and provide me ability to take the business at new heights and standards. Over the past years everything I have encountered has built me into person that I am today, a proactive man with integrity and competency. I believe one of my most distinguishing characteristics is the diversity of experience I possess. I am a science student with a flair for the business, a man with technical aptitude and an interest in management. I did my schooling from citys renowned institute S.N. Kansagra School. My zest towards business always made me curious to learn more about it. Consequently, I opted for couple business subjects like- commercial application and business studies to embrace passion. It provided me profound understanding and strengthen my knowledge in business. In addition to my work in the classroom, I was an active member of the campus. Perhaps the most prominent of all was my participation in the robotics club, I developed many small robots, such as line following, pick and place, colour ball sorting, etc. Prior to my undergraduate studies, I interned at couple of companies, which helped in my personal upgrowth and building up awareness of professional codes of behaviour. During my internship at Human Resource department of Balaji Multi Flex Pvt. Ltd, I gained practicality in dealing with people and ability to empathise with them. My Engineering degree has given a solid foundation to my analytical skills and technical aptitude. Apart from academics I have taken ardent interest in co-curriculum activities like Globerina Quiz where I was second runner up and had participated in many tech fest and was rewarded third price at technical competition, Robo-Hustle. I also organised and managed technical competition at yearly held tech fest. Further I am enrolled into different clubs such as Intelligent Instrumentation and GTU innovative council which focus on advancement of new technology and sharing and implementing creative ideas and thoughts etc. I also channelized my interest for business in club of Entrepreneurship development cell. I have an intrigue and independent mind; this trait gave me good leadership and management ability. For instance, I lead a team in design engineering course which presented product canvas on floor and street cleaning machine and developed an equivalent model to propose it. Currently, in my final semester I am leading another team for my final year project, where I designed and programmed Multi axis drilling machine equipped with 3 servo drives, a VFD and HMI for data acquisition. My undergraduate study scheduled from early morning to noon created opportunity for me to make headway to my career, I got formally inducted into the family firm Pelican Rotoflex Pvt. Ltd. on a part-time basis at the age of 18 and since then I am adding on to my professional journey. I initially focused on understanding flexible packaging industry and its different processes. Further, I observed and learned the operation of different departments of the company such as design, production, automation, marketing, etc. This provided me with profound knowledge in my field of study as well as provided me business world experience. Afterwards, I began working in administrative and marketing, while working I learnt core values of focus, empathy and perseverance. I got acquainted with market leaders in the industry. Apart from these I also worked on Exhibition fairs like PlastIndia and K trade fair. Last October I accompanied my firm in participation at international market fair for plastic i ndustry K-2016, Dusseldorf, Germany. Apart from providing global exposure, it bought me closer to industrys global market. These four years of experience aspired me to become a valued player in the marketplace, empowered with the technical aptitude and professional acumen required to make critical business decisions. I choose UK, as it is a breeding ground for intellectuals. Given the importance of globalisation in development, an education that does not fully address the international and multicultural realities of the modern world is incomplete; UK offers diversity and multiculturalism of corporate world unlike any other country. UK is also one of the oldest and possess worlds most renowned education system which boasts of some of the best universities. UK would provide me the unique combination of accelerated growth and the flexibility to pursue this career path as it is the epicentre of the world economy. An atmosphere as eclectic as your campus where I get to meet students from diverse backgrounds is a rich ground for me to expand my knowledge about globalization. I aim to follow my fathers footsteps but only after I gain considerable experience and knowledge at a global level. A graduate education from ____ would provide me with the perfect steppingstone to achieve my career goal of creating unprecedented progress for my family business. My grandfather, who started from scratch, laid the foundation for our company; it was consolidated by my father who brought about management, efficiency and profitability to our company. In my endeavour to expand my company to new height and standards, I see no better college than _____ to help me realize these goals.

Decline in Reading Skills Among Students

A comparative study by the ministry of education shows a worrying downward trend in reading skills. This is evident from the dismal performance in reading skill test undertaken by the students. Furthermore, according to a comprehensive U. S. -wide study of reading skills by the National Endowment for the Arts. (2007). Americans reading a lot less: a study on reading skills. Retrieved from www. washingtonpost. com . in Washington draws on a variety of sources, public and private, and essentially reaches one conclusion; Americans read less more. Across other continents the same trend is worrying the governments. A look at the societal behavior and education trend would draw various reasons on the downward trend of reading skills. In nations where more than half the population lives below a dollar day, a focus on Africa and Asia, it gets difficult for students in such families to have easy access to reading materials. Poverty is a major factor reducing accessibility of reading materials to the less fortunate. Besdes not being able to access the reading materials, the students would rather spend much of the time trying to assist their family make ends meet by engaging cheap labor or attending to home chores while the parents engage in fending for them. In the long run the trend is passed on to the next generation and the families remain in this vicious cycle. A technological focus of the society shows a higher advance in social media with more of these technological advancement targeting the youth and young who have hit these markets with a bang. The students are more glued to these social media development which increases their networking levels. On the rise is also the rate at which these students have turned to visual media which takes much of their s time. People find it easier to have visual media other than involving themselves in reading which they perceive to be rather tasking. This factor has been encouraged by our institutions which also turn most materials, originally produced for reading, into visual media reducing the chances of one having to read the materials than watching it, which is much easier and less involving. With all the above ,a more worrying trend is the teaching methods and skills passed to the students at school . Current education curriculum focuses more on passing particular test rather than developing students reading culture. The effect is that the students are more interested in passing tests and would want to use other methods to enable them pass the xams. The reading culture developed at the elementary level is eventually destroyed in these student and instead they get focused on other stuff and passing exams. The way students are taught takes, rather a passive line towards reading skills. In conclusion, reading skills among high school students ,is and has been on the decline due to three major factors; inaccessibility of reading material due to poverty, technological advancement in the visual media and social networks which provide a leeway to the students to evade reading and teaching skill which gives reading skills an inactive approach.

Computer Generations Essay

The IC (Integrated Circuits) technology was used in third-generation computers. In a small IC chip (5 mm square size) a circuit is designed having large number of electronic components like transistors, capacitors, diodes, resistors etc. Initially, an IC contained only about ten to twenty components. Thus the IC technology was named as Small Scale Integration (SSI). The third-generation was based on IC technology and the computers were designed using this technology. IBM 370, PDP 11 are among examples. Advantages The main advantages of third-generation as compared to previous generations of computers were: Smaller in size Production cost was low Many input/output devices were introduced such as mouse and keyboard etc. Very fast in computational power More reliable Low power consumption Maintenance cost was low because failure rate of hardware was very low. Easily portable Easy to operate Upgraded easily Totally general purpose. Widely used for various commercial applications all over the world Lower heat generated Magnetic disk used for external storage More storage capacity High-level languages were commonly used Disadvantages The main disadvantages of third-generation computers were: Air-conditioning required. Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturer chips. 4. Fourth Generation Computers (1971 to Present) Microprocessors The microchip technology was introduced in this generation of computers. With the advancement in IC technology, LSI (Large Scale Integration) chips were developed. It was possible to integrate over 30,000 or more components on to single LSI chip. After LSI, the VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) was developed and the development of microprocessor possible. It is expected that more than one million components will be integrated on a single chip of VLSI. Using VLSI technology, the entire CPU is designed on a single silicon chip. The use of microprocessor as CPU introduced another class of computers called the microcomputers. Thus fourth-generation may be called Microcomputer generation. The Intel 4004 chip was the first microprocessor. In 1981, IBM introduced the first computer for home use. In 1984, Apple introduced the Macintosh. Advantages The advantages of fourth-generation as compared to previous generation computers are: Smallest in size because of high component density. Production cost is very low Very reliable Hardware failure is negligible and hence minimal maintenance is required. Easily portable because of their small size Totally general purpose Air conditioning is not compulsory Very high processing speed Very large internal and external storage capacity Used advanced input & output devices such as optical readers, laser printers, CD-ROM/DVD-ROM drives etc. Heat generated is negligible Minimal labour and cost involved at assembly stage Disadvantages The main disadvantages of fourth-generation computers are: Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturer of microprocessor chips 5. Fifth Generation Computers (In process) Artificial Intelligence The main drawback of first to fourth generation computers is that the computers have not their own thinking power. These are totally depending upon the instructions given by the users. Computer devices with artificial intelligence are still in development, but some of these technologies are beginning to emerge and be used such as voice recognition. AIl is a reality made possible by using parallel processing and superconductors. Leaning to the future, computers will be radically transformed again by quantum computation, molecular and anon technology. Fifth generation computers are supposed to be the ideal computers, but do not exist. The scientists are working to design such computers that will have the following features: Having their own thinking power Making decisions themselves Having capabilities of learning Having capabilities of reasoning Having large capacity of internal storage Having extra high processing speed Having capabilities of parallel processing In these computers following technologies will be used: ULSIC (Ultra Large Scale Integrated Circuits) technology Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology also called the knowledge Processor. The AI means automatic programs that let the machines to think and decide themselves. The programming languages LISP (List Processor) and PROLOG (Programming with Logic) are used for artificial intelligence. The scientists at ICOT in Japan use the PROLOG to develop the Artificial Intelligence software.

Napoleon and the Italian Campaign of 1796â€1797

Napoleon and the Italian Campaign of 1796–1797 The campaign fought by French General Napoleon Bonaparte in Italy in 1796–7 helped end the French Revolutionary Wars in favor of France. But they were arguably more significant for what they did for Napoleon: from one French commander among many, his string of successes established him as one of France’s, and Europe’s, brightest military talents, and revealed a man able to exploit victory for his own political goals. Napoleon showed himself to be not just a great leader on the battlefield but a canny exploiter of propaganda, willing to make his own peace deals for his own benefit. Napoleon Arrives Napoleon was given command of the Army of Italy in March 1796, two days after marrying Josephine. On route to his new base- Nice- he changed the spelling of his name. The Army of Italy was not intended to be the main focus of France in the coming campaign- that was to be Germany- and the Directory  may have been just shunting Napoleon off somewhere he couldn’t cause trouble. While the army was ill-organized and with sinking morale, the idea that the young Napoleon had to win over a force of veterans is exaggerated, with the possible exception of the officers: Napoleon had claimed victory at Toulon and was known to the army. They wanted victory and to many, it seemed like Napoleon was their best chance of getting it, so he was welcomed. However, the army of 40,000 was definitely poorly equipped, hungry, disillusioned, and falling apart, but it was also composed of experienced soldiers who just needed the right leadership and supplies. Napoleon would later highlight how much of a difference he made to the army, how he transformed it, and while he overstated to make his role look better (as ever), he certainly provided what was needed. Promising troops that they would be paid in captured gold was among his cunning tactics to reinvigorate the army, and he soon worked hard to bring in supplies, crack down on deserters, show himself to the men, and impress on all his determination. Conquest Napoleon initially faced two armies, one Austrian and one from Piedmont. If they had united, they would have outnumbered Napoleon, but they were hostile to each other and didn’t. Piedmont was unhappy at being involved and Napoleon resolved to defeat it first. He attacked quickly, turning from one enemy to another, and managed to force Piedmont to leave the war entirely by forcing them on a large retreat, breaking their will to continue, and signing the Treaty of Cherasco. The Austrians retreated, and less than a month after arriving in Italy, Napoleon had Lombardy. At the start of May, Napoleon crossed the Po to chase an Austrian army, defeated their rear-guard at the battle of Lodi, where the French stormed a well-defended bridge head on. It did wonders for Napoleon’s reputation despite it being a skirmish that could have been avoided if Napoleon had waited a few days for the Austrian retreat to continue. Napoleon next took Milan, where he established a republican gove rnment. The effect on the army’s morale was great, but on Napoleon, it was arguably greater: he began to believe he could do remarkable things. Lodi is arguably the starting point of Napoleon’s rise. Napoleon now besieged Mantua but the German part of the French plan had not even begun and Napoleon had to halt. He spent the time intimidating cash and submissions from the rest of Italy. Around $60 million francs in cash, bullion, and jewels had so far been gathered. Art was equally in demand by the conquerors, while rebellions had to be stamped out. Then a new Austrian army under Wurmser marched forth to tackle Napoleon, but he was again able to take advantage of a divided force- Wurmser sent 18,000 men under one subordinate and took 24,000 himself- to win multiple battles. Wurmser attacked again in September, but Napoleon flanked and ravaged him before Wurmser finally managed to merge some of his force with the defenders of Mantua. Another Austrian rescue force split up, and after Napoleon narrowly won at Arcola, he was able to defeat this in two chunks as well. Arcola saw Napoleon take a standard and lead an advance, doing wonders again for his reputation for personal bravery, i f not personal safety. As the Austrians made a new attempt to save Mantua in early 1797, they failed to bring their maximum resources to bear, and Napoleon won the battle of Rivoli in mid-January, halving the Austrians and forcing them into Tyrol. In February 1797, with their army broken by disease, Wurmser and Mantua surrendered. Napoleon had conquered northern Italy. The pope was now induced to buy Napoleon off. Having received reinforcements (he had 40,000 men), he now decided to defeat Austria by invading it but was faced by Archduke Charles. However, Napoleon managed to force him right back- Charles’ morale was low- and after getting to within sixty miles of the enemy capital Vienna, he decided to offer terms. The Austrians had been subjected to a terrible shock, and Napoleon knew he was far from his base, facing Italian rebellion with tired men. As negotiations went on, Napoleon decided he wasn’t finished, and he captured the Republic of Genoa, which transformed into the Ligurian Republic, as well as took parts of Venice. A preliminary treaty- Leoben- was drawn up, annoying the French government as it didn’t clarify the position in the Rhine. The Treaty of Campo Formio, 1797 Although the war was, in theory, between France and Austria, Napoleon negotiated the Treaty of Campo Formio with Austria himself, without listening to his political masters. A coup by three of the directors which remodeled the French executive ended Austrian hopes of splitting France’s executive from its leading General, and they agreed on terms. France kept the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium), conquered states in Italy were transformed into the Cisalpine Republic ruled by France, Venetian Dalmatia was taken by France, the Holy Roman Empire was to be rearranged by France, and Austria had to agree to support France in order to hold Venice. The Cisalpine Republic may have taken the French constitution, but Napoleon dominated it. In 1798, French forces took Rome and Switzerland, turning them into new, revolutionary styled states. Consequences Napoleon’s string of victories thrilled France (and many later commentators), establishing him as the country’s pre-eminent general, a man who had finally ended the war in Europe; an act seemingly impossible for anyone else. It also established Napoleon as a key political figure and redrew the map of Italy. The vast sums of loot sent back to France helped maintain a government increasingly losing fiscal and political control.

Hisarlik, Scientific Excavations at Ancient Troy

Hisarlik, Scientific Excavations at Ancient Troy Hisarlik (occasionally spelled Hissarlik and also known as Ilion, Troy or Ilium Novum) is the modern name for a tell located near the modern city of Tevfikiye in the Dardanelles of northwest Turkey. The tell- a type of archaeological site that is a tall mound hiding a buried city- covers an area of about 200 meters (650 feet) in diameter and stands 15 m (50 ft) high. To the casual tourist, says archaeologist Trevor Bryce (2002), excavated Hisarlik looks like a mess, a confusion of broken pavements, building foundations and superimposed, crisscrossing fragments of walls. The mess known as Hisarlik is widely believed by scholars to be the ancient site of Troy, which inspired the marvelous poetry of the Greek poet Homers masterpiece, The Iliad. The site was occupied for some 3,500 years, beginning in the Late Chalcolithic/Early Bronze Age period about 3000 BC, but it is certainly most famous as the probable location of Homers 8th century BC stories of the Late Bronze Age Trojan War, which took place 500 years earlier. Chronology of Ancient Troy Excavations by Heinrich Schliemann and others have revealed perhaps as many as ten separate occupation levels in the 15-m-thick tell, including Early and Middle Bronze Ages (Troy Levels 1-V), a late Bronze Age occupation presently associated with Homers Troy (Levels VI/VII), a Hellenistic Greek occupation (Level VIII) and, at the top, a Roman period occupation (Level IX). Troy IX, Roman, 85 BC-3rd c ADTroy VIII, Hellenistic Greek, founded in the mid-eighth centuryTroy VII 1275-1100 BC, quickly replaced the destroyed city but itself destroyed between 1100-1000Troy VI 1800-1275 BC, Late Bronze Age, the last sublevel (VIh) is thought to represent Homers TroyTroy V, Middle Bronze Age, ca 2050-1800 BCTroy IV, Early Bronze Age (abbreviated EBA) IIIc, post-AkkadTroy III, EBA IIIb, ca. 2400-2100 BC, comparable to Ur IIITroy II, EBA II, 2500-2300, during the Akkadian empire, Priams Treasure, wheel-made pottery with red-slip potteryTroy I, Late Chalcolithic/EB1, ca 2900-2600 cal BC, hand-made dark burnished hand-built potteryKumtepe, Late Chalcolithic, ca 3000 cal BCHanaytepe, ca 3300 cal BC, comparable to Jemdet NasrBesiktepe, comparable to Uruk IV The earliest version of the city of Troy is called Troy 1, buried beneath 14 m (46 ft) of later deposits. That community included the Aegean megaron, a style of narrow, long-room house which shared lateral walls with its neighbors. By Troy II (at least), such structures were reconfigured for public use- the first public buildings at Hisarlik- and residential dwellings consisted in the form of several rooms surrounding interior courtyards. Much of the Late Bronze Age structures, those dated to the time of Homers Troy and including the entire central area of the Troy VI citadel, were razed by Classical Greek builders to prepare for the construction of the Temple of Athena. The painted reconstructions that you see show a hypothetical central palace and a tier of surrounding structures for which there is no archaeological evidence. The Lower City Many scholars were skeptical about Hisarlik being Troy because it was so small, and Homers poetry seems to suggest a large commercial or trading center. But excavations by Manfred Korfmann discovered that the small central hilltop location supported a much larger population, perhaps as many as 6,000 living in an area estimated to be about 27 hectares (about one-tenth of a square mile) lying adjacent to and stretched out 400 m (1300 ft) from the citadel mound. The Late Bronze Age parts of the lower city, however, were cleaned out by the Romans, although remnants of a defensive system including a possible wall, a palisade, and two ditches were found by Korfmann. Scholars are not united in the size of the lower city, and indeed Korfmanns evidence is based on a fairly small excavation area (1-2% of the lower settlement). Priams Treasure is what Schliemann called a collection of 270 artifacts he claimed to have found in within palace walls at Hisarlik. Scholars think it is more likely that he found some in a stone box (called a cist) among building foundations above the Troy II fortification wall on the western side of the citadel, and those probably represent a  hoard  or a  cist grave. Some of the objects were found elsewhere and Schliemann simply added them to the pile. Frank Calvert, among others, told Schliemann that the artifacts were too old to be from Homers Troy, but Schliemann ignored him and published a photograph of his wife Sophia wearing the diadem and jewels from Priams Treasure. What seems likely to have come from the cist includes a wide range of gold and silver objects. The gold included a sauceboat, bracelets, headdresses (one illustrated on this page), a diadem, basket-earrings with pendant chains, shell-shaped earrings and nearly 9,000 gold beads, sequins and studs. Six silver ingots were included, and bronze objects included vessels, spearheads, daggers, flat axes, chisels, a saw, and several blades. All of these artifacts have since been stylistically dated to the Early Bronze Age, in Late Troy II (2600-2480 BC). Priams treasure created a huge scandal when it was discovered that Schliemann had smuggled the objects out of Turkey to Athens, breaking Turkish law and expressly against his permit to excavate. Schliemann was sued by the Ottoman government, a suit which was settled by Schliemann paying 50,000 French Francs (about 2000 English pounds at the time). The objects ended up in Germany during World War II, where they were claimed by the Nazis. At the end of World War II, Russian allies removed the treasure and took it to Moscow, where it was  revealed in 1994. Troy Wilusa There is a bit of exciting but controversial evidence that Troy and its troubles with Greece might be mentioned in Hittite documents. In Homeric texts, Ilios and Troia were interchangeable names for Troy: in Hittite texts, Wilusiya and Taruisa are nearby states; scholars have surmised recently that they were one and the same. Hisarlik may have been the royal seat of the king of  Wilusa, who was a  vassal to the Great King of the Hittites, and who suffered battles with his neighbors. The status of the site- that is to say the status of Troy- as an important regional capital of western Anatolia during the Late Bronze Age has been a consistent flashpoint of heated debate among scholars for most of its modern history. The Citadel, even though it is heavily damaged, can be seen to be considerably smaller than other Late Bronze Age regional capitals such as  Gordion, Buyukkale, Beycesultan, and  Bogazkoy. Frank Kolb, for example, has argued fairly strenuously that Troy VI was not even much of a city, much less a commercial or trade center and certainly not a capital. Because of Hisarliks connection with Homer, the site has perhaps unfairly been intensively debated. But the settlement was likely a pivotal one for its day, and, based on Korfmanns studies, scholarly opinions and the preponderance of evidence, Hisarlik likely was the site where events occurred that formed the basis of Homers  Iliad. Archaeology at Hisarlik Test excavations were first conducted at Hisarlik by railroad engineer John Brunton in the 1850s and archaeologist/diplomat  Frank Calvert  in the 1860s. Both lacked the connections and money of their much-better-known associate,  Heinrich Schliemann, who excavated at Hisarlik between 1870 and 1890. Schliemann heavily relied on Calvert, but notoriously downplayed Calverts role in his writings. Wilhelm Dorpfeld excavated for Schliemann at Hisarlik between 1893-1894, and  Carl Blegen  of the University of Cincinnati in the 1930s. In the 1980s, a new collaborative team started at the site led by  Manfred Korfmann  of the University of Tà ¼bingen and  C. Brian Rose  of the University of Cincinnati. Sources Archaeologist Berkay Dinà §er has several excellent  photographs of Hisarlik  on his Flickr page. Allen SH. 1995.  Finding the Walls of Troy: Frank Calvert, Excavator.  American Journal of Archaeology  99(3):379-407. Allen SH. 1998.  A Personal Sacrifice in the Interest of Science: Calvert, Schliemann, and the Troy Treasures.  The Classical World  91(5):345-354. Bryce TR. 2002.  The Trojan War: Is There Truth behind the Legend?  Near Eastern Archaeology  65(3):182-195. Easton DF, Hawkins JD, Sherratt AG, and Sherratt ES. 2002.  Troy in recent perspective.  Anatolian Studies  52:75-109. Kolb F. 2004. Troy VI:  A Trading Center and Commercial City?  American Journal of Archaeology  108(4):577-614. Hansen O. 1997. KUB XXIII.  13: A Possible Contemporary Bronze Age Source for the Sack of Troy.  The Annual of the British School at Athens 92:165-167. Ivanova M. 2013.  Domestic architecture in the Early Bronze Age of western Anatolia: the row-houses of Troy I.  Anatolian Studies  63:17-33. Jablonka P, and Rose CB. 2004.  Forum Response: Late Bronze Age Troy: A Response to Frank Kolb.  American Journal of Archaeology  108(4):615-630. Maurer K. 2009.  Archeology as Spectacle: Heinrich Schliemanns Media of Excavation.  German Studies Review  32(2):303-317. Yakar J. 1979.  Troy and Anatolian Early Bronze Age Chronology.  Anatolian Studies  29:51-67.

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