Relationship Outside of the Strange Situation Essay Example for Free

Relationship Outside of the Strange Situation Essay The attachment of an infant to his mother is an important part of development. A mother is the first experience of love and care that the child will ever have. This attachment also has important implications in the development of the child and even into adulthood. Children develop styles of attachment depending on their experiences with their caregivers and with their mothers. There are different attachment styles that have been identified in children. The first one is secure attachment, anxious-ambivalent attachment, anxious-avoidant attachment and disorganized attachment (Cassidy Shaver, 1999). Theorists and scientists have identified the Strange Situation Protocol to be the most common method in studying attachment in infants. The Strange Situation Protocol is also the most empirically supported method for assessing attachment. Based on the behavior of the infant in relation to their mothers or caregivers, they are grouped into the different kinds of attachment already identified. It should be noted, however, that attachment does not stem from the thinking of the child. Rather, it is a feature of the relationships of the infant to different people. In early childhood, the child may exhibit different kinds of attachment. Yet beyond the age of four, children may settle for one particular kind of attachment (Greenspan, 1993). Studying Attachment Beyond the Strange Situation Protocol The Strange Situation Protocol (12 months to 20 months) is the most popular method in measuring attachment in children. Pederson and Moran (1996) decided to investigate children’s attachment outside of the Strange Situation. Their study, â€Å"Expressions of the attachment relationship outside of the strange situation,† observed 41 preterm infants together with 38 full-term infants at home with their mothers. These infants were at observed during their 8 months and 12 months of age. They were also observed within the Strange Situation at 18 months. The purpose of the study is to compare the attachment expressions in the two distinct settings. The researchers looked at the four different kinds of attachment relationship expressions. They discovered that there is an 84% concordance in the differences between secure and non-secure attachment relationship at home for infants at 12 months old. Avoidant relationships at this stage also displayed very high concordance. In addition to this, the study also found out that around 30% of the dyads were classified with ambivalent attachment at home and in the Strange Situation. The mothers in secure relationships at the Strange Situation were more sensitive on the 8 and 12 months as compared to mothers who displayed ambivalent and avoidant relationships. On the other hand, the mothers in non-secure relationships did not display any marked difference in their sensitivity. In the Strange Situation, those infants in secure relationships displayed the characteristics of having effective secure base behavior. Moreover, they also displayed physical contact and affectionate sharing. During the 12-month home observations, these infants were easier to deal with because they were not very difficult to interact with. The research method of the study was naturalistic as the researchers observed the infants at home. They managed to take note of the way that the infants related with their mothers. At the strange situation, however, the approach became more manipulative because of the requirements of the protocol. In addition to this, the authors looked at several variables pertaining to the expressions of attachment relationships. They looked at the reunion behaviors, the reactions of children to their mothers and to other persons that they are interacting with. The reactions of the children to strangers, to caregivers and to the mothers were logged. The reaction of the children to the return of their parents was also noted by the researchers. To analyze the research problem effectively, the researchers studied infants in two different settings: at home and at the strange situation. In addition to this, they also observed the subjects in different ages—at 8 months, 12 months and 18 months, which is already included in the Strange Situation. As a control group for the variable, this enabled the researchers to understand the differences in attachment of the children in different situations and at different stages of their development. The researchers utilized unobtrusive observations in the home setting where they observed the natural tendencies of children and their relationships with the members of the household. They pre-determined the kinds of behavior and relationships they were looking after and noted their observations. As the study progressed, they compared their notes and established looked at the kinds of attachment relationships for analysis. The researchers explored the literature on the Strange Situation, the studies conducted concerning the observations of infants and their attachment relationships at home and the limitations of observing infants within the Strange Situation Protocol. Given these developments in the literature, they found out that there is a lack of studies focusing on the attachment relationships beyond the Strange Situation Protocol. The main contribution of the study is the way that they observed infants beyond the Strange Situation. This enabled them to make comparisons as to the development of attachment relationships of younger infants and compare that with findings within the strange situation. The presentation of the findings of the study is not very clear. One way to improve this would be stating the findings in terms that could be better understood by readers and not only by intellectuals and scientists. The inclusion of diagrams and tables would also greatly help in understanding the results of the study and its application in the lives of mothers and their developing children. There are no apparent ethical issues that can be discerned in the study. Observing the infants and their mothers at home, however, can yield some important ethical considerations in the study. It may be seen as disrupting on the processes and relationships of the family members. In addition to this, the child may also be alerted by the presence of the researcher and this could have potential impact on the exploration of a toddler of the house. This should also be factored into the study. The way that the study compared attachment relationships of children below the Strange Situation is laudable. The study could be further explored by studying the attachment relationships of children beyond the Strange Situation. The researchers studied children at 8 months, 12 months and 18 months. The study could be further improved by studying children beyond the 20 months of the Strange Situation. This way, the study could yield important insights in the utility or inadequacy of the Strange Situation as method of measuring attachment relationships. Conclusion The study of Pederson Moran (1996) helps in understanding the Strange Situation and the way that infants develop attachment relationships at an age that falls below the strange situation. Their findings suggest that there are not much important differences in the way that non-secure mothers and infants develop attachment in the strange situation and outside of it. However, for those with secure relationships and ambivalent ones, there is concordance and better long term development of attachment. This has implications in the way that children should be treated during their infancy. Reference Cassidy, J. , Shaver, P. , (Eds). (1999) Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications. New York: Guilford Press. Greenspan, S. (1993) Infancy and Early Childhood. Madison, CT: International Universities Press. Pederson, D. R. Moran, G. (1996). Expressions of Attachment Relationship Outside of the Strange Situation. Child Development, 67, 915-927.

An Analysis Of Mahatma Gandhi

An Analysis Of Mahatma Gandhi Gandhi (1982) directed by Richard Attenborough and starring Ben Kingsley in the title role, won 9 Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actor, Best Screenplay and Best Cinematography. The movie opens with the assassination of Gandhi. It depicts the journey of Mahatma Gandhi from sole colored practicing advocate in South Africa, who was thrown out of a train at Pietermaritzburg on his refusal to shift to third class coach while holding a valid first class ticket to the leader of community who used the principles of non-violent resistance on behalf of Indian immigrants to his relocation to his mother land, India and inspiring millions of fellow citizens by his charismatic leadership skills. The movie also portrays his individuality and relationships with his family, close-associates, friends and leaders of Indian Congress Party. Additionally, the principles followed by Gandhi are represented fairly with right blend of external factors including the British policies, his extensive travels, poverty prevalent in rural India and his conviction to remove discrimination issues, which affected his decisions, outlook and strategies adopted together with the building of his Ashram, taking up fasting and standing firm on his principles of non-co-operation and non-violence. The tag line of this movie: His triumph changed the world forever is absolutely true. WHo was gandhi? Mr. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, bestowed with the title of Mahatma: Great soul (a honorary title first used by Rabindranath Tagore), lovingly called Bapu: father, used by his followers, is the Father of nation of India. This expression was first used for Gandhi by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose in his condolence message on the demise of Kasturba Gandhi, wife of Mahatma Gandhi in the year 1944. Gandhinot only raised his voice for Swaraj (home rule for India) and taught his countrymen to fight without any arms or ammunition against the British Empire, but led the world to believe and still follow his principles of truth and non-violence. Gandhi was a qualified Barrister, studied law in University College of London, lead a simple life with his wife, Kasturbai Makhanji and four sons, Harilal, Manilal, Ramdas and Devdas. Though a Hindu by birth, he believed in spirituality and not strict adherence to religious beliefs. The dialogue from the movie Gandhi clearly reveals the same: I am a Muslim and a Hindu and a Christian and a Jew and so are all of you. It is easier to explain the austerity of this great leader by borrowing the condolences of Edward R. Murrow: ..Mahatma Gandhi was not a commander of great armies nor ruler of vast lands, he could boast no scientific achievements, no artistic gift. Yet men, governments and dignitaries from all over the world have joined hands today to pay homage to this little brown man in the loincloth who led his country to freedom (Dialogue from the movie Gandhi (1982), directed by Richard Attenborough) Guiding Principles and followers Gandhi followed 11 vows throughout his life, which are described in his various writings. These vows are: Ahimsa: non-violence, Satya: truth, Asteya: non-stealing, Brahmacharya: self discipline, Aparigraha: non-possession, Sharirshrama: bread labor, Aswada: control of the palate, Sarvatra Bhayavarjana: fearlessness, Sarva Dharma Samantva: equality of all religions, Swadeshi: use of only locally made goods and Sparshbhavna: removal of untouchability. (Source:http://www.gandhimanibhavan.org/gandhiphilosophy/philosophy_11vows.htm) The Time Magazine in December, 1999 edition named The 14th Dalai Lama, Lech WaÅ‚Äâ„ ¢sa, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Cesar Chavez, Aung San Suu Kyi, Benigno Aquino, Jr., Desmond Tutu and Nelson Mandela as Children of Gandhi and his spiritual heirs to non-violence. (Source:http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,993026,00.html) His journey was from a briefless barrister (a term used to ridicule him by his fellow legal practitioners, as expressed by Eknath Easwaram) in Bombay to the half naked Indian fakir (as referred by Winston Churchill in his speech in 1930) to the champion of the cause of non-violence and equality. This passage was full of thorns in the form of assorted problems faced by him as well as roses as the numerous followers. Innumerable writers and leaders world-over have expressed diverse opinion about the greatest spiritual and political leader of India. Whether people follow the principles of Gandhi or they loathe him, his immense work cannot be ignored. In the words of Martin Luther King Jr. in the year 1955: Christ gave us the goals and Mahatma Gandhi the tactics. (Source: Life Magazine: Remembering Martin Luther King Jr. 40 Years Later, 2008) Leadership Qualities and styles A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards the achievement of a goal. A leader is an individual who first performs and then, leads his followers by example, so that they are motivated to follow him. He must have an innate commitment to a goal and strive to achieve it even if others do not follow him. As defined by Eric Hoffer, the leader has to be practical and realist, yet he must talk the language of visionary and idealist. (Source: http://www.vtaide.com/gleanings/leader.htm) The dictionary meaning of the term leadership is the capacity to lead others; an act or instance of guiding. Leadership is a process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task as defined by Chemers. There are diverse opinions and theories regarding definitions and classifications of leadership styles. Nevertheless, in the words of Vance Packard Leadership appears to be the art of getting others to want to do something you are convinced should be done. (Source: http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadstl.html) Viscount Slim listed the traits of leadership as courage, will power, judgment, flexibility, knowledge and integrity. In the words of Hill, characteristics of leader include self-confidence, morale qualities, self-sacrifice, paternalism, decisiveness, dignity, tolerance, enthusiasm, knowledge of man. In the light of these expressions, Gandhi was a true leader, who planned and performed the tasks, led by example, had strong conviction to achieve the goal and motivated his followers. The strength and character of Mahatma Gandhi is clear in his own words as: You can chain me, you can torture me, you can even destroy this body but you will never imprison my mind. Kenneth Benne and Paul Sheats (1948) defined 26 different group roles that can be played by one or more persons within a group, which were categorised as: task roles, personal or social roles and dysfunctional or individualistic roles. According to these roles, in the group task roles, an individual may be initiator, coordinator, evaluator, critic, orienter or recorder. (Source: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_85.htm) Kurt Lewin led a group of researchers to identify different styles of leadership and established three major styles of leadership as: authoritarian or autocratic; participative or democratic and delegative or laissez-faire. (Source:http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadstl.html) Participative leader: Gandhi definitely was a participative or democratic leader, who involved the whole team in planning and goal setting, problem solving and emphasised team building; on the other hand, he retained his decision making authority that could not be challenged. Rather than deciding in an autocratic manner, he involved other people in the process, including his subordinates, peers, superiors and other stakeholders. Since the political situation then, was dynamic and changing frequently, the required democratic leadership flowed from Gandhi. He brought out the best of experience and skill from the fellow Congress leaders, seniors and followers. He had a strong conviction with right blend of flexibility and chose appropriate approach to be followed. The communication channels used were open and transparent; and in case of any changes, the strategy was explained unambiguously. Theories of leadership Various theories have been propounded on the concept of leadership based on varied attributes of a leader including traits, situational interactions, function, behavior, power, vision, values, charisma, ethics and intelligence among others. The following theories are relevant in describing leadership characteristics of Gandhi as explored in the movie: Charismatic leadership Transformational leadership Servant leadership Authentic and Ethical leadership Ideal leadership Follower-centric leadership Charismatic Leader: According to the trait approach, the leadership style is affected and influenced by the individual characteristics and traits of leader. German sociologist, Max Weber distinguished three ideal types of legitimate political leadership, domination and authority: charismatic (familial and religious), feudal or traditional (patriarchs or patrimonalism) and legal (modern law and state). Weber (1947) defined charismatic leadership as resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him. He defined the term charisma as a certain quality of an individual personality, by virtue of which he is set apart from ordinary men and treated as endowed with supernatural or exceptional powers or qualities, which are not accessible to an ordinary person, but of divine origin or exemplary. He further added that a charismatic leader has remarkable ability to distill complex ideas into simple messages and communicates by using symbols, analogies, metaphors and stories. Such a leader relishes risk and is an optimist, who rebels conventions. Robert House (1977) used four phrases to define charismatic leadership: dominant, strong desire to influence others, self-confident and strong sense of ones own moral values. (Source: http://www.12manage.com/methods_weber_charismatic_leadership.html) Gandhi is the best example of a charismatic leader. It was only his divine charisma that helped him fight on behalf of the Indian community in South Africa employing his principle of non-violence and wage a war against the British Empire for Indian independence. (Source: http://www.12manage.com/methods_weber_charismatic_leadership.html) Transformational Leadership: Bass (1985) extended the theory of charismatic leadership to the theory of transformational leadership, where a leader is able to inspire and activate subordinates to perform beyond expectations and to achieve goals beyond those normally set. Transformational leadership as defined by Burns (1978), is the process of motivating the team by leader to be effective and efficient and engaging their commitments in the context of the shared values and shared vision. It involves relationship of mutual trust between the leaders and the followers. (Source: http://psychology.about.com/od/leadership/a/transformational.htm) Gandhi beyond doubt was a transformational leader. He utilised his communication skills for facilitating and focusing his peers and followers on the final desired outcome or goal attainment. In consonance with Burns analysis, Gandhi was highly visible and used chain of command. He focused on the ideal vision of Swaraj and was surrounded by numerous other leaders who were responsible and accountable for interim milestones leading to attaining the target. All the four elements of a transformational leader were evident in Gandhis leadership: individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation and idealized influence. He attempted to attend to his followers individual needs, acting as their mentor and addressing their concerns. He unconditionally supported his followers and respected their individual contributions. The followers also had aspirations for self development and were motivated towards accomplishing their responsibilities. He was never averse to taking risks and was open to nurturing associates and followers. He articulated a common vision which inspired his followers, peers and other contemporary leaders. His inspirational motivation and high standards challenged his followers. Also, followers had a strong sense of purpose and responded positively acting towards the attainment of goal. The visionary outlook of Gandhi was supported by his communication skills and conviction, which resulted in mak ing it precise and powerful. He instilled pride in his followers gaining their respect and trust enabling him to obtain their additional efforts. Servant leadership: Robert Greenleaf (1977) described that a servant-leader is a servant first. He elucidates that the servant-leadership begins with a natural feeling that leader as an individual wishes to serve, which is followed by a conscious choice to aspire to lead. Gandhi, the quintessential servant-leader describes his own motivation to serve as: service to the poor has been my hearts desire and it has always thrown me amongst the poor and enabled me to identify myself with them. (Source:http://www.lifepositive.com/Mind/Ethics/Servant_Leadership_stooping_to_conquer22004.asp) Spears (2002) lists qualities of servant-leader as: listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to growth of people and building community. (Source:http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/styles/servant_leadership.htm) Gandhis desire to serve a cause and adhere to his principles was evident in South Africa. His mission to serve humanity began with his concern for the equal treatment of Indians, followed by raising his voice against the Bill, which was sought to deprive Indians of their freedom. First they ignore you, then they laugh at you, then they fight you, then you win.: These words of Gandhi echo his persuasiveness and precision. Authentic and Ethical Leadership: In wake of financial, ethical and societal crises, people have begun clamor for authentic leadership. It is defined by Walumbwa as a pattern of leader behaviour that draws upon and promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate fostering positive self-development. The traits of authentic leadership embraces self-awareness of a leader, relational transparency, balanced processing of information and internalized moral perspective. (Source:http://johnmolson.concordia.ca/images/stories/graduate_prog/msc/docs/msc-agre/briand_melanie.pdf) Luthans and Avolio define authentic leadership as a process that draws from both positive psychological capabilities and a highly developed organizational context, which results in both greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors on the part of both leaders and associates, fostering positive self development. Authentic leaders inspire others by modeling positive organizational states of confidence, hope, optimism, and resiliency. By responding transparently to moral dilemmas, authentic leaders become ethical role models. Thus, authentic leadership is an umbrella that comprises of ethical leadership as well. (Source:http://leadershipskills.org.au/interpersonal-leadership/authentic-leadership-explained/) In the words of Gandhi: Everyone who wills can hear the inner voice. It is within everyone. He demonstrated characteristics of an authentic leader by being committed to truth. He knew himself well and was absolutely clear about his ideals and values. He illustrated self-discipline. Even in the movie, the dialogues between Ba, Mirabehn and Margaret Bourke-White, evidence that he strictly professed celibacy. Gandhi was extremely compassionate and genuine. Even during one of his train journeys, he releases his head cloth to a poor woman, across the river, who apparently was not wearing any proper clothing. Being an authentic leader of course, emanates from his rich experience and commitment towards serving humanity. Good leadership refers not only to the competence of leader to lead his followers to perform a task, but his responsibility for ensuring standards of moral and ethical conduct and in transforming people. Ethical leadership combines ethical decision-making and ethical behavior. Key responsibility of a leader is to make ethical decisions and behave in ethical ways and to ensure that his followers understand and practice the ethical code. (Source: http://studentorgs.unomaha.edu/documents/EthicalLeadership.pdf) An ethical leader must emphasis and reiterates the statements about importance of ethics. He must disseminate ethical guidelines to his followers. Gandhi, indeed is considered one of the most ethical leaders. He modeled his ethical behavior and set a visible example for others to follow. He set rules for himself and also, his followers as regards the dos and donts of moral behavior. This code was followed religiously by him. He criticised all unethical behavior and in case of any such unethical act by his followers, he went on to fasting as a penance. Gandhi considered that Always aim at complete harmony of thought and word and deed. Ideal leadership: Ideal leadership or Inter-Disciplinary leadership is a scientific leadership theory propounded by Larry Stout (2001), which identifies six critical capabilities that are grouped under leadership capital and four capacities under leadership conditions. The six critical leadership capital capacities are vision, values, wisdom, courage, trust and voice to influence followers. The four vital leadership conditions vital for these capacities are place where the leader can hold sway, period that calls for his or her leadership, position that conveys leadership authority, and people who are ready for leadership. (Source: http://www.az-encyclopedia.info/i/1329282_Ideal_leadership/) This theory states that leader is one who leads his organization forward in a positive direction. The conditions determine who gets to be a leader in the first place a person must be in the right place, at the right time, doing the right things, with the right people in order to have an opportunity to lead. (Source: http://www.idealleadership.com/talking_about_leadership) His positive thoughts are amply clear from Gandhis words: An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind. Follower-centric leadership: Gandhis relation with his followers can be classified into the approach of being follower-centric. In accordance with this approach, it is pertinent that the leadership is focused on followers, and not on the leader. The leader should give attention to his followers and make them feel proud on being part of the team. In the words of Warren Bennis: Good leaders make people feel that they are at the very heart of things, not at the periphery. The follower-centric approach to leadership emphasises the information processing aspect in leadership dyads. (Source: http://learningleaders.blogspot.com/2007/12/being-follower-centric.html) Meindl propounded this theory on the argument that it is the followers rather than the leaders who construct both the phenomenon of leadership and the images of specific leaders. Gandhi followed and advocated strategies that were dependent on circumstances and his followers. For instance, when he was in South Africa, he launched his protests in a suit and a tie, whereas, when he came back to India, he dressed only in Indian self-made clothing Khadi and launched non-violent protests on an immense scale. (Source: http://www.rediff.com/money/2003/apr/11spec2.htm) Contemporary Leaders OF GANDHI There were several leaders of that era, who were contemporaries of Gandhi, including the members of Indian National Congress, striving for independence. Jawahar Lal Nehru, Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, Maulana Azad, Bhagat Singh, Chander Shekhar, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the leader of Muslim league, to name a few. In the movie, Muhammad Ali Jinnah is depicted as one of the strong leaders, who even went to the extent of defying Gandhi. Jinnah demanded for a new Muslim nation named Pakistan. This was completely against the principles and philosophies of Gandhi. Jinnah is officially known as Quaid-i-Azam (Father of nation) in Pakistan. He advocated two nation theory, which was opposed to Mahatmas ideology of United India. As depicted in the movie, there were several instances where Gandhi interacted with Jinnah. First encounter of Gandhi with Jinnah was in Patels Garden. They subsequently met during a meeting for demanding Home rule for India, later at Jinnahs residence at Bombay and on various other occasions. Muhammad Ali Jinnah studied law, which led him to start thinking about Indian freedom through constitutional methods and Hindu-Muslim Unity. Jinnah was the leader of Muslim community of India. The leadership style adopted by Jinnah was authoritarian and charismatic. His charismatic style helped him to gain confidence, acceptance and support from Muslims, consequently, obeying his orders. His leadership style is very well depicted in the movie during his talks demanding Home rule for India and the immediate response and enthusiasm among public. His authoritative style of leadership kept the party together where he held decision making power and exercised complete control over his follower. On comparing, leadership styles of Jinnah and Gandhi, it is evident that Gandhi was accepted among different sections of Indian society and across all castes and religions (including Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and others). On the other hand, the popularity and acceptance of Jinnah was limited to only one community. Mahatma Gandhis ethics, authenticness and ideal leadership made him the leader of masses. analysis of followers According to Hill, leadership is product of projection and transference process of followers. The followers play a significant role in constructing leadership. They have cognitive schema through which they identify and assess their leaders. Once they identify small number of prototypical leadership in a person then they designate him as a leader. As depicted in the movie, Gandhi has follower driven leadership. It is amply clear that Gandhis follower played significant role in the construction of leadership. Mahatma Gandhi always worked in the best interest of his followers. Conclusion MY LIFE IS MY MESSAGE Gandhi was a great leader and independence fighter whose personality and leadership qualities widely influenced his followers. He accomplished his vision of Independent India by following on his principles of non violence and non cooperation. Opponents could never challenge his ideas and beliefs and later, he became ideal of many great leaders. Using principles of Satyagraha, he led the campaign for Indian independence from Britain. Gandhi was arrested many times by British for his activities in South Africa and India. He believed it was honourable to go to jail for a just cause. Altogether he spent seven years in prison for his political activities. Gandhi used fasting to impress upon others the need to be non-violent. India was granted independence in 1947. In the words of Indian poet, Pradeep: You gave us freedom without any sword or shield, you are a miracle.

The Harmful Effects Of Body Piercing Essay -- Body Piercing

A great number of teenagers and young adults have a body piercing. These can range anywhere from your belly button to your tongue. There are many effects it can have on you socially, or physically. This essay will describe the social aspects of body piercing, this includes first impressions, types of friends, and job prospects. First impressions are important to many people. To some individuals body piercing may seem frightening or intimidating. The person with the piercing may be treated differently in a store. They might be watched more carefully to prevent shoplifting just because of this piercing. Some sales clerks might do this because they got the impression the customer was dangerous or suspicious. These presumptions come along with other physical traits such as race or dress. Soci...

Lie

Ruby Villainies Moline Miss Kim 10 Semester September/2014 Lying for what? Secrets are everywhere, all around the world going back and forth, you see or heard them everywhere you go. Everyone has secrets, like the government, friends, teachers, including your family; but have you ever considered why do people lie? Why do we keep information? Why do we not speak or say all what we think? And what are the consequences if I lie?People lie because of the fear of the consequence of truth, to appear to be important and to â€Å"protect† others. The reasons why people lie are so varied; now at days the two principal reasons are to avoid hurting the feelings of others or to solve or avoid uncomfortable situations; like when you tell the people you are â€Å"fine† when you are sad or depressed or when you say that you already have a plan when actually you don ‘t want to go out with someone, the common known as white lies.Another reason is to have a â€Å"good† self- esteem or being accepted by others exaggerating a situation (inventing stories) creating a fake impression to the there pretending being some else because she or he does not feel good about his or herself, in fact all of this is caused by the reason that she or he has a low self-esteem and they need to feel that someone worry about them; a good example of this is when you meet someone that doses ‘t want you to know who is he or who she really is, so they lie to you about their-selves.And the last reason is to avoid others of feeling fear or be concerned; like the ones the government says because they need to pep some information in secret, but all of this is bad, at the end it becomes a bad and destructive habit or you get into a point where you can ‘t stop lying, because you need to protect one lie you have said and even if you want to say the true, you can ‘t (it becomes a vicious circle); like Steve H. Said: â€Å"lies grow, they never stand alone, they need mo re lies to support the first lie.So, if you don't fess up immediately†¦ It grows like a cancer. It cannot be stopped; however all of this happens because we are not blew to say or hear the truth, we prefer to live on a fake reality that on the real world† When we lie, we are trying to deceive others, when in reality the only person you are fooling is yourself by trying to create a fake reality to Justify your mistakes and our lack of responsibility and actually at the end we end up believing them, a reality that we create.Like I have said, lying can become a destructive habit, it can hurt everyone around, destroy the credibility of the people and create distance between the liar ND the lied, when really think about it, there is not a reason to say a lie because at the end the truth is always discovered and the main reason why you start lying you hurt it and you will end losing. Or example a friend asked you how does she/he looks on a cloth and he/she looks horrible and yo u lie to him/her because you don ‘t want to hurt him/her feelings and at the end he/she discovered the truth, she/he is not going to believe on you again and you also hurt her/his feelings; so what is the point of lying? At the end the principal person that gets hurt is you; but in the other way you told her/him that she/he looks horrible, the only think that could happen is that he/she gets changed and that is all.Concluding all have said lying is bad decision that at the end the only person you are fooling more is you. So there is no reason to lie in any case, it is easy to say the truth first than then retract whatever you have said and try to regain the confidence of others after losing it, and that we have the ability to solve our problems and / or to adequately handle unexpected events. What happens is that we are such cowards that we decide to go for the â€Å"easy' and â€Å"secure† side and at the end we end hurting ourselves.

Moral psychology Essay

The articles in this special section express a common theme: the use of information technology in society is creating a rather unique set of ethical issues that requires the making of new moral choices on the part of society and has spawned special implications for its members. Technology itself is not the only, nor necessarily the most responsible, cause of these issues. All ethical questions arise initially out of human agency. Technology, due to its capability to augment mental and physical powers of human beings, does stand in the role of a coconspirator. The lure of power-enhancing capabilities makes technology an inducer of sorts, a necessary but not sufficient underpinning to many of the ethical issues we face today. An ethical issue is said to arise whenever one party in pursuit of its goals engages in behavior that materially affects the ability of another party to pursue its goals. When the effect is helpful—good, right, just—we say the behavior is praiseworthy or exemplary. When, however, the effect is harmful— bad, wrong, unjust—the behavior is unethical. This purposeful theory of ethics is reflected in the issues discussed in these articles. For example, email and being online are applications of information technology, the lure of which is based on their ability to expand the scope, range, speed, and ease of interpersonal and corporate communications. Useful as they are, the schemes and the manifold of issues addressed leave one question unanswered: What moral guidance can be provided to the agents whose behavior create these issues? And, this question leads to others: How should the many knowledge workers, systems analysts, programmers, hardware designers, authors, executives, and so forth, who set in motion the actions which bring these issues to the fore, guide their own behavior? Knowing their technology-based actions will intercede in the course of human affairs, how should they direct them? The crucial point occurs when a moral agent—one that by definition has choices—decides to change the state of information or information technology in a human system. Changes in hardware, software, information content, information flow, knowledge-based jobs, and the rules and regulations affecting information are among the many things agents do that affect others. I call these crucial juncture points moments-of-truth. If those of us who make decisions in any of these areas are to behave ethically, we must be able to identify the significant momentsof-truth in which we participate and be able to reflect on the effects of our actions. We must use our moral imagination to guide our choices so that we can contribute positively toward making the kind of ethical world in which we want to live and want to bequeath to our future generations. How can we do this? The ACM Code of Ethics [1], as well as the schemes and other articles in this special section provide initial grist for the mill. More fundamental, however, is our conscience, aided by our understanding and expertise in information technology. If we have an inkling our behavior as information professionals might in some way harm others, we probably should examine our decisions a little more carefully and from an ethical point-of-view. Getting the Morally Relevant Facts The facts of an ethical situation can be summarized by four factors. The first factor is to clearly identify the moral agent. Whose actions will bring about the technology-induced change? The frameworks and discussions presented here will be helpful because they point to a variety of possible forms of agency. The next factor is the set of alternative courses-ofCOMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM. December 1995/Vol. 38, No. 12 55 action available to the agent. These are the realworld acts that will have an effect on the human system under consideration. Acts have consequences, hence the third factor: a delineation of the results that are expected to occur if each act is taken. Finally, it is essential to identify the stakeholders who will be affected by the consequences of the acts. A stakeholder is any individual, group, organization, or institution that can affect as well as be affected by an agent’s actions. In a word, stakeholders have an interest in what an agent does [3]. These four factors—agent, acts, results and stakeholders—are the basic facts from which an ethical analysis proceeds. Applying Ethical Theories Renowned medical ethicist William F. May refers to the method of ethical reflection as corrective vision. â€Å"Ethics supplies a type of corrective lens,† he observes, â€Å"and relies heavily on the distinction between what is and what ought to be† [4]. These four crucial factors serve to establish what is. For what ought to be we must turn to ethical theories. These theories are the prisms—the optometrist’s collection of lenses—through which we can observe reality and see the choices to make as we attempt to direct reality towards our ethical ideals. There are many, perhaps an infinity, of theories we might apply. The optics of ethics is very large indeed. We can be comforted in this effort, however, by the realization that the evolution of ethical thinking has resulted in four major themes. These are meta-lenses through which to look at an ethical situation. One theory emphasizes an agent’s duty. This theory seeks to create a good society by having people do the right things. As Immanuel Kant emphasized, there are prohibitions against taking some acts and obligations to take others. We have a prima facie or a priori duty, for example, to respect the autonomy of others according to one principle evolving out of this theory; any acts an agent might take that would invade a stakeholder’s privacy or right to choose for themselves should be avoided. More specifically, it is reasonable to assume members have a prima facie duty to adhere to the provisions of the ACM Code of Ethics. But, and this is a significant point, we may not always be obliged to do so. Subsequent theorists in this deontological vain, W. D. Ross in particular [5], have held that while these duties are compelling they are not definitive. When two or more duties come into conflict the agent must make a reasoned choice. For example, the advantages obtained from using email may be deemed to be more important than the exposure to loss of privacy it brings about. These moral losses, however, should be made explicit in making a moral choice. The same principle applies, as we will see, among theories themselves. The second great tradition is the pursuit of happiness. Applying this theory requires that we assess the consequences of the agent’s actions and deter56 December 1995/Vol. 38, No. 12 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM mine how much pleasure or pain, good or bad, happiness or unhappiness, benefits or costs they inflict on stakeholders. The guiding principle, which originates with Bentham and Mill, is that an agent should choose an act resulting in the greatest good for the greatest number. The good society is reached according to this theory by doing good for others. However, since what is good for the collective-at-large may not be good for a given individual (or may violate a basic duty or right), advice emanating from this consequentialist tradition may conflict with advice deriving from other theories. A third great tradition is the pursuit of virtue. This theory focuses on improving the character or traits of the agent. The ancient Greeks averred that a moral person should take acts that enable and enhance the agent’s courage, prudence, temperance and justice. Their predecessors focused on accumulating individual power. â€Å"Might is right† formed the basis of their concept of virtue. One of their successors, St. Thomas Acquinas, drew on the Pauline tradition to add the more spiritual virtues of faith, hope and charity to the list. And, in the industrial age, industry, honesty, and trustworthiness were added because they were necessary for commercial relationships. All of these virtueoriented guides have the effect of creating a good society by having each agent be a good person. Finally, there is the tradition of the pursuit of justice. Justice requires that every stakeholder in the system should enjoy, so far as possible, an equal opportunity to develop his or her knowledge, skills and talents, and to reach his or her potentialities. This comes from fair dealing and right action and is usually based on rules that society has made, rules that should be the same for all and applied equally. The rules are based on criteria such as merit, need, work or other agreed-upon standards. The social contract theories to which several of the authors refer have emerged as a part of this tradition. The good society according to theories of justice is achieved by doing fairly, both in the fair allocation of privileges, duties, and goods, and in the meting out of punishments. When facing a moment-of-truth, one is well advised to view the situation through each of these ethical lenses. Each provides insight into the moral complexity of the issue being examined. Frequently, however, the guidance deriving from one of these theories will conflict with that of one or more of the others. This requires a moral judgment, one that shows how one theory or principle trumps another. The reasons behind the choice made should be grounded in at least one moral theory and justified accordingly. The pitting of facts against theories is a necessary —and the most important—aspect of deciding on an ethical issue. There are also four additional considerations to take into account: Who should decide? Who should benefit? How should the decision be made? And, how can the issue be prevented from arising in the future? Who Should Decide? Presumably if you are facing a moment-of-truth you are also engaged in a decision process. Should you go it alone? Often, not. Before an agent acts he or she should take into account the answers to two questions: 1) Which other stakeholders ought to participate in the making of this decision because of their knowledge, their values, or their interests? The voices of future generations should always be considered in this determination as well as the voices of contemporaries. 2) Which other stakeholders must take part in the decision and its implementation because of their institutional jobs, responsibilities or the resources they control? As debates on the basis of a â€Å"just war† have concluded, a decision that does not carry legitimacy or a reasonable probability of success is unlikely to lead to a satisfactorily moral outcome. Who Should Benefit from the Decision? Many stakeholders may be affected by a decision. Some of these outcomes should have been considered during the application of ethical theories to the situation at hand. Nevertheless, before enacting a choice one should assure himself or herself the benefits of the decision flow to morally justifiable parties and that no undue harm is done. How Should the Decision be Made and Carried Out? From a stakeholder’s point-of-view a decision cannot be separated from the way it is made and delivered. Whenever possible, important moral decisions should be made as the result of due process. Beyond any legal requirements, the processes by which decisions are made should be fair and they should follow established procedures when applicable. It is essential the parties who are potentially harmed by decisions, as well as those who are benefited, recognize the legitimacy of the decision-making process. This, however, is not enough. Decisions should be carried out in a humane, moral way. During the trumping process just described, some ethical principles or dictates are relegated to a secondary position. But they do not go away. A decision should be framed and fulfilled in a manner which maximizes the accomplishment of all of the ethical principles identified. All decisions should be carried out with due respect, in the sense that they should preserve the dignity of all stakeholders involved to the extent possible. How Can the Issue be Prevented from Arising in the Future? Every decision becomes a precedent in the future. A decision that resolves an acute and pressing moral issue today may not look so good in light of the passage of time. It may create worse problems than the ones it solves. Or, our moral reflection may reveal flaws in our institutions that can be—perhaps, should be—changed so the ethical issue at hand does not emerge again, at least in the same degree of intensity or severity. Thus, procedures and processes should be put in place, eliminating the root causes of this issue or handling it more effectively in the future. The essential question: In making this ethical decision, what sort of social transcript do we want to write? The last four considerations have a common thread: To be ethical, a decision-maker must think beyond just the facts and theories pertinent to the current issue. One must reach beyond the present and be sure to bring in additional voices, insure that ethical procedures are employed, adopt a humane style of conduct, and look to the future. Moving Ahead The articles in this issue form a rather gritty as well as a cerebral basis for getting on with the task of creating a good society in our information age. The ethics of being online, using tools such as email, and infusing of information technology into our lives in areas ranging from business process reengineering to installing large-scale systems are, arguably, among the most important ethical issues of our time. As good citizens in this information age we must be able to identify the crucial moments-of-truth in which our behavior as information professionals shapes the direction our society will take. By understanding the facts of each case, drawing on ethical traditions for guidance, and doing this with a concern for the broader implications of our actions, we can create the kind of ethical society we want. This is the challenge of our times [2]. C References 1. Anderson, R. E. , Johnson, D. G. , Gotterbarn, D. and Perrolle, J. Using the new ACM code of ethics in decision-making. Commun. ACM 36, 2 (Feb. 1993), pp 98–107 2. Mason, R. O. , Mason, F. M. , and Culnan, M. J. Ethics of Information Management. Sage, Thousand Oaks, Calif. , 1995. 3. Mason, R. O. and Mitroff, I. Challenging Strategic Planning Assumptions. Wiley, New York, 1981. 4. May, W. F. The Physician’s Covenant. Westminster Press, Philadelphia, 1983. 5. Ross, W. D. Moral Duties. Macmillan, London, 1969. Richard O. Mason is Carr P. Collins Professor of Management Information Sciences at the Edwin L. Cox School of Business, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Tex. Parts of this article are based on material originally developed for Mason, R. , Mason, F. , and Culnan, M. Ethics of Information Management. Sage, Thousand Oaks, Calif. , 1995. Permission to make digital/hard copy of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage, the copyright notice, the title of the publication and its date appear, and notice is given that copying is by permission of ACM, Inc. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers, or to redistribute to lists requires prior specific permission and/or a fee.  © ACM 0002-0782/95/1200 $3. 50 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM December 1995/Vol. 38, No. 12 57.

Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo Essay

Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (born April 5, 1947) is a Filipino politician who served as the14th President of the Philippines from 2001 to 2010, as the 12th Vice President of the Philippines from 1998 to 2001, and is currently a member of the House of Representativesrepresenting the 2nd District of Pampanga. She was the country’s second female president (after Corazà ³n Aquino), and the daughter of former President Diosdado Macapagal. Arroyo was a former professor of economics at Ateneo de Manila University where Benigno Aquino III was one of her students. She entered government in 1987, serving as assistant secretary and undersecretary of the Department of Trade and Industry upon the invitation of President Corazon Aquino. After serving as a senator from 1992 to 1998, she was elected to the vice presidency under President Joseph Estrada, despite having run on an opposing ticket. After Estrada was accused of corruption, she resigned her cabinet position asSecretary of Social Welfare and Development and joined the growing opposition to the president, who faced impeachment. Estrada was soon forced from office by the EDSA Revolution of 2001, and Arroyo was sworn into the presidency by Chief Justice Hilario Davide, Jr. on January 20, 2001. She was elected to a full six-year presidential term in the controversial May 2004 Philippine elections, and was sworn in on June 30, 2004. Following her presidency she was elected to the House of Representatives, making her the second Philippine president—after Josà © P. Laurel—to pursue a lower office after their presidency. On November 18, 2011, Arroyo was arrested following the filing of criminal charges against her for electoral fraud. As of December 9, 2011, she is incarcerated at the Veterans Memorial Medical Center in Quezon City under charges of electoral sabotage.

Corporation and interpersonal Communication training exercise Essay

Corporation and interpersonal Communication training exercise - Essay Example (McGill, 2009) Interpersonal communication is the exchange of ideas, knowledge, information and opinion between two or more individuals, and it is quite an art to do it correctly. An organization has multiple stakeholders at one point in time which it has to cater to. And the manager of such an organization thus has the huge responsibility of communicating with these various stakeholders. From hiring someone to firing someone, from managing a team to arbitrating during a conflict, from being the change agent to giving someone constructive criticism – it all falls in the job of a manager, and it has to be done well if the manager has to experience the right level of self confidence and success for the organization. Therefore, communication is one of the aspects which should really be focused upon in all organizations. (Volkert, 2009) Training exercises and training programs which last for weeks should be built according to the demographics of the employees, and then given to the employees. I f the communication of the employee gets improved, it will take the organization a long way. Role plays, which is the training exercise selected for this report, is one of the most effective methods of showing a person the right way to do something. This is because when a person is asked to do a role play, he can easily assume that he is playing the role of someone else, and that no one can judge him for who he really is. This human psyche helps in getting role plays successful, and in getting across the message. (Windsor, 2006) The training exercise that will be developed to instill effective interpersonal communication in managers will be that of a role play. Role modeling, as it is also known, is an effective way of showing the situations that occur in daily life. The effectiveness of the role modeling method of training exercise lies in the fact that even though an employee might